Some Highlights on the Treaty of Versailles

Analysis

Introduction

The first world war would finally end with the armistice on November 11, 1918.¹ Germany would finally be lured into peace negotiations on the basis of the United States’ President Woodrow Wilson’s largely publicized ‘Fourteen Points’. To broker global peace and ensure stability, twenty seven nations would later agree to gather in Paris for negotiations. The ‘Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920’ would result in the world’s nations signing the Treaty of Versailles. Germany, as the main ‘Central’ enemy, was not allowed to participate in negotiations, and Russia did not participate because Germany had already signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia. Germany considered the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty as a victory that ended the war on the eastern front and the benefits of Russia agreeing to the succession of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, territory in Finland and Belarus and monetary compensation to Germany.² Germany was ultimately unable to repeat that success on the ‘Western Front’. The negotiations would be led by Britain, France, and the United States with input by associated and neutral nations. The Treaty of Versailles set the foundation for national integrity in Europe, international cooperation policy, and a defined world government in the form of the League of Nations: a ‘new world order’.

Context

To begin, it is important to review the state of the world in the early 1900s. The countries of the world had established themselves and their economies based off the emerging and growing ‘modern’ industrialization. In the early 1900s, the world began to reorient itself after the ‘shake-up’ from the ‘Industrial Revolution’ that led to advancements in technology and economies. Industrialization can attribute to the realization of the ‘war machines’ of the imperial belligerents in the first world war. The first world war is often stated to be the last “imperial war” before being replaced by narratives of global security and order. The divergent nations from the fall of the Roman Empire would re-visit imperialism, after consolidation through the “Middle/Medieval Ages” and continue colonizing the globe, especially the newly discovered American continents which would be considered the “New World”. The United States would later win its independence and lead the cascade of following revolutions through out the Americas, seemingly expelling “Old World” imperial powers from that part of the globe. Ousted from the Americas, European powers would focus their colonial efforts across Africa, Asia, and the islands throughout the Pacific Ocean. Emerging revolutionary and social revolutionary politics conceptualized from the emergence of industrialization and the precedent the revolutions in the Americas set. At the turn of the twentieth century, Britain was the dominant power and ruled the seas with its superior naval power paired with its colonial holdings made Britain a leading industrial power.³ Germany posed as the only potential imperial power that could challenge Britain on the global stage and France and other European nations had colonial holding inferior to these two nations and would align themselves to either side (Britain or Germany) or attempt to remain neutral. The Ottoman Empire was in steep decline and Japan had just begun to adopt an imperial policy. The ruling powers had to navigate a political landscape where attempts of conserve power and control met the growth of social awareness and “open” industrial economics. The cascade of declarations of war amongst European nations after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 provided the opportunity for the belligerents to eliminate threats to their empirical power.

Treaty Settlements

The Treaty of Versailles was composed to address what the German state would be going forward and the international structure from the “power” vacuum that would be left from the German Empire being dismantled. Woodrow Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ served as the basis for the drafting of the treaty, influencing the themes and rhetoric of the document. A common theme from Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ was that sovereignty of subject nations and ethnicities would be recognized. Part Three of the treaty focused on establishing the boundaries of the ethnic and distinct European states surrounding Germany. The Brest-Litovsk Treaty was effectively invalidated in Section Fourteen. Notably, Germany had to recognize Belgium in Section One which reinstated its status before the war. And Germany was also mandated to cede land to Czechoslovakia and acknowledge its sovereignty in Section Seven. Part Three: Section Eight established Polish sovereignty and what would be called the ‘Polish Corridor.’

Article 87

Germany, in conformity with the action already taken by the Allied and Associated Powers, recognizes the complete independence of Poland, and renounces in her favour all rights and title over the territory bounded by the Baltic Sea, the eastern frontier of Germany as laid down in Article 27 of Part II (Boundaries of Germany) of the present Treaty up to a point situated about 2 kilometres to the east, of Lorzendorf, then a line to the acute angle which the northern boundary of Upper Silesia makes about 3 kilometres north-west of Simmenau, then the boundary of Upper Silesia to its meeting point with the old frontier between Germany and Russia, then this frontier to the point where it crosses the course of the Niemen, and then the northern frontier of East Prussia as laid down in Article 28 of Part II aforesaid.⁴

These articles set up the basis for recognition of minor nations and set Part Two of the treaty also focused on setting the boundaries of the countries surrounding Germany. The Treaty of Versailles mandated Germany to relinquish territory along with its inhabitants, totaling an estimated sixty-five thousand square kilometers.⁵ Germany was mandated to cede territory along its border to France for reparations. Section Four of Part Three of the treaty stated:

Article 45

As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of France and as part payment towards the total reparation due from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany cedes to France in full and absolute possession, with exclusive rights of exploitation, unencumbered and free from all debts and charges of any kind, the coal-mines situated in the Saar Basin as defined in Article 48.⁶

In regards to Germany’s colonial territories, the treaty mandated in Part Four:

Article 118

In territory outside her European frontiers as fixed by the present Treaty, Germany renounces all rights, titles and privileges whatever in or over territory which belonged to her or to her allies, and all rights, titles and privileges whatever their origin which she held as against the Allied and Associated Powers.

Germany hereby undertakes to recognize and to conform to the measures which may be taken now or in the future by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, in agreement where necessary with third Powers, in order to carry the above stipulation into effect.

In particular Germany declares her acceptance of the following Articles relating to certain special subjects.⁷

Germany’s colonies would be divided between the ‘victors’ of the first world war. Articles 124 and 125 and Section Five would transfer the African colonies to France on the basis of reparations. Also, Section Six transfers control of Egypt to Britain. Section Two of Part Four then mandates Germany to renounce all property in China to the Chinese and French governments. Shantung would then be transferred to Japan in Section Eight. Disarmament was the focus of Part Five of the Treaty in regards to ‘Point Four’ stated in Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’, “Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety”; albeit Germany was the only nation mandated to disarm.⁸

Article 159

The German military forces shall be demobilized and reduced as prescribed hereinafter.⁹

To guarantee to disarmament of German and keep the peace, Part Fourteen set the expectations for the occupation in Germany.

Article 428

As a guarantee for the execution of the present Treaty by Germany, the German territory situated to the west of the Rhine, together with the bridgeheads, will be occupied by Allied and Associated troops for a period of fifteen years from the coming into force of the present Treaty.¹⁰

The Peace Conference attendees negotiated reperations for the destruction of the first war. The treaty did mandate forms of monetary repayment to France and Britain but it was essential to set the legal basis for reparations. In Part Eight of the Treaty of Versailles, “war guilt” was placed onto Germany.

Article 231

The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.¹¹

The German kaiser would be charged as a war criminal and Article 227 sought to “publicly arraign William II of Hohenzollern, formerly German Emperor, for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties.”¹² Article 228 would also provide the right for the Allied and Associated Powers to “bring before military tribunals persons accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war.”¹³ Interestingly, an additional penalty was administered to Germany at the end of Part Seven, presumably to allow Germany to cover more of the financial costs of the agreement.

Article 230

The German Government undertakes to furnish all documents and information of every kind, the production of which may be considered necessary to ensure the full knowledge of the incriminating acts, the discovery of offenders and the just appreciation of responsibility.¹⁴

Finally, the League of Nations would also be a notable product of the Treaty of Versailles in its definitions for international cooperation policy. Part One of the treaty serves as the covenant for the creation for a ‘league of nations’ and sets the precedent for further negotiations for the formation of the League of Nations after the Paris peace conference. Again, the Paris peace conference attendees would follow the suggestions of the ‘Fourteen Points’, specifically ‘Point Fourteen’.

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.¹⁵

Reaction

The Treaty of Versailles, as a product of the Paris peace conference, served as the main peace agreement with Germany and was designed to be a document that would establish global peace and justice. Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau of Germany stated that the ‘Fourteen Points’ Woodrow Wilson presented to the world was the main driving factor that made Germany “and the enemy recognize as the basis for the armistice.”¹⁶ Brockdorff-Rantzau sent a letter to French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau arguing for amnesty on Germany’s behalf. In his letter, Brockdorff-Rantzau provides statistical evidence of the harsh condition the proposed peace conditions. He ends and signs his letter:

The enforcement of the Peace Conditions would therefore logically entail the loss of several million persons in Germany. This catastrophe would not be long in occurring, since the health of the population has been broken during the war by the blockade and during the armistice by the increased vigor of the starvation blockade...

Those who sign this treaty, will sign the death sentence of many millions of German men, women and children. I believe that my duty before beginning the discussion of other details of the treaty, lay in bringing to the attention of the Allied, and Associated Delegations, this summary of the problem facing the German people. At your request I hold ready for your excellency the statistical proof.

Kindly accept, etc.

Signed: Brockdorff-Rantzau¹⁷

On the ‘Allied’ side, South African general Jan Smuts expressed discontent with the result of the Paris Peace Conference. He states, “There will be terrible disappointment, when the peoples realise that we have not made a Wilsonian peace, that we have not kept faith with the public.”¹⁸ British diplomat Harold Nicolson would also state, “We came to Paris convinced that the old order had merely fouled the new.”¹⁹ Japan, as the only non-white imperial power, would attempt to to obtain recognition for the principle of racial equality at the League of Nations Commission but would ultimately not succeed.²⁰ Georges Clemenceau would say that “the treaty [of Versailles] will be what you make it.”²¹

Conclusion

Deductions

In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles established national integrity in Europe, international cooperation policy, and a world governance framework while setting the legal precedence to prevent a capable German power. It is widely accepted that the harsh peace agreements of the Treaty of Versailles would lead to the outbreak of a second world war, instigated by Germany, a few decades later. Perhaps it may have been more reasonable for the Paris peace conference to have peace agreements negotiated with the party it wanted to make peace agreements with? Woodrow Wilson’s advisor, Edward M. House, noticed that, “The whole affair was elaborately staged and made as humiliating to the enemy as well could be”.²² France’s conduct is suggestive of the French seizing the opportunity to enact some revenge and punish Germany for the past wars with the Pan-Germans and for the most definite destruction in the first world war. Governments were navigating a relatively new political landscape with the emergence of new technology like the telegram. Public opinion and the press were new factors that needed to be manoeuvered and this is suggestive of the propaganda and comments provide (like Wilson’s Points and politician statements). Because of the growth of the public’s voice, the Treaty of Versailles would also include labor rights recognition and ratification of the International Opium Convention. Britain engaged in additional legal manouevering by allowing Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Australia sign the Treaty of Versailles as separate distinct countries. The League of Nations was constructed to be the framework for international cooperation and law. Japan pushed for ‘Racial Equality’ policy to be included in the treaty but was not included due to conflicting interests of the United States, Britain, and France.

Analysis

Again, the Treaty of Versailles did establish national integrity in Europe and an international cooperation legal framework. It becomes apparent that the Paris peace conference attendees, that drafted the treaty, believed the world hardly was Europe and hardly was interested in recognizing the sovereignty of the African, Asian, Arabic, Pacific and American territories and colonies. Germany understood the scope of the war and that whichever side won would not only set the terms for peace but also global order. That is why it was imperative for Germany to succeed on the Western Front in a way that was beneficial towards Germany.

1. Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a Global Era, 1917–2008. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 2010. pg 51.

2. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

3. Clapp, Edwin J. “Chapter XIV: The Practibility Of Starving Germany” Economic Aspects of the War: Neutral Rights, Belligerent Claims and American Commerce in the Years 1914-1915. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1915.

4. Part III Section VIII Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

5. Truitt, Wesley B. (2010). Power and Policy: Lessons for Leaders in Government and Business. Praeger. p. 114.

6. Part III Section IV Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

7. Part IV Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

8. Wilson, Woodrow. 1918. Fourteen Points. January 8, 1918.

9. Part V Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

10. Part XIV Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

11. Part VIII Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

12. Part VII Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

13. Part VII Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

14. Part VII Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

15. Wilson, Woodrow. 1918. Fourteen Points. January 8, 1918.

16. Leonhard, Jorn. Der uberlorderte Frieden. Versailles und die Welt 1918-1923 Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2018. pg.946.

17. Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count. Communication from Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, Relative to the Report of the Economic Commission to Georges Clemenceau. 1919.

18. Macmillan, Margaret. The Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World. New York: John Murray, 2001. pg.475

19. Sharp, Alan. The Versailles Settlement. Peacemaking after the First World War. 1919-1823. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991. pg. 213.

20. "Human Rights in History: Diplomacy and Racial Equality at the Paris Peace Conference." Diplomatic History 2, no. 3 (July 1978): 257–278.

21. Stevenson, David. 1914-1918: The History of the First World War. New York: Penguin Books, 2004. pg. 529.

22. Gerwath, Robert. The Vanquished. Why the First World War Failed to End, 1917-1923. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016. pg. 199.

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Bibliography

Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count. Communication from Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, Relative to the Report of the Economic Commission to Georges Clemenceau. 1919.

Clapp, Edwin J. “Chapter XIV: The Practicability Of Starving Germany” Economic Aspects of the War: Neutral Rights, Belligerent Claims and American Commerce in the Years 1914-1915. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1915.

Gerwath, Robert. The Vanquished. Why the First World War Failed to End, 1917-1923. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016.

"Human Rights in History: Diplomacy and Racial Equality at the Paris Peace Conference." Diplomatic History 2, no. 3 (July 1978): 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.1978.tb00435.x.

Leonhard, Jorn. Der uberlorderte Frieden. Versailles und die Welt 1918-1923 Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2018.

Macmillan, Margaret. The Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World. New York: John Murray, 2001.

Sharp, Alan. The Versailles Settlement. Peacemakig after the First World War. 1919-1823. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.

Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a Global Era, 1917–2008. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army, 2010. .

Stevenson, David. 1914-1918: The History of the First World War. New York: Penguin Books, 2004.

Soviet Government. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Moscow: Soviet Government, 1918.

Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, signed at Versailles, June 28, 1919.

Truitt, Wesley B. (2010). Power and Policy: Lessons for Leaders in Government and Business. Praeger.

Wilson, Woodrow. 1918. Fourteen Points. January 8, 1918.